Positive Psychology

Analysis, discussion, and framework of

Positive Psychology in Counselling

In a life where paradoxes are continual and individuals are dynamic yet holistic, experience is a vast entailment not only of aspects that bring about trials, tribulations and the emotions that radiate from fear; but equally of an innate human capacity to facilitate optimal well-being and the emotions that radiate from love. As such, there is a need for a counselling perspective that integrates a continuum of individual experiences into a consciousness narrative that makes sense interpersonally and intra-personally (Lilgendahl & McAdams, 2011). Positive psychology (PP), alongside other perspectives, can facilitate this need. Moreover, a comprehensive analysis of PP reveals that, although its sudden rise to awareness brought about many criticisms (Peterson, 2006), it is far from its depiction as “…a caricature of an extravert…” (Miller, 2008).

This analysis of PP proposes that there is indeed an essential role for a “new science of strength and resilience” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) within a counselling perspective. In combination with a variety of techniques, PP in counselling allows for “…true self knowledge or wisdom, and the capacity to truly grow as a human being” (Miller, 2008). The basis of the argument originates from Millers 2008 critique:

The model of mental health depicted by positive psychology turns out to be little more than a caricature of an extravert – a bland, shallow, goal-driven careerist whose positive attitudes, certainties and ‘high self-esteem’ mask the fact that he lacks the very qualities that would enable him to attain a degree of true self -knowledge or wisdom, and to really grow as a human being. (p.606)

This analysis seeks to first explore how the stereotype of the ideal individual as a “caricature of an extravert” could be perpetuated by PP, and then to demonstrate the ironic nature of the statement. Next, the essential role of PP will be explored alongside the application of its techniques within the counselling paradigm.

How Positive Psychology May Perpetuate a Stereotypical ‘Ideal’ Individual

Although Millers (2008) critique is now near 10 years old there is still a vast array of literature, media, “experts”, institutes, and research fields that connect anything from hedonistic experiential existential approaches of positive emotions (Kristjánsson, 2013, pp. 174-175), “happiology” and other “bad company” (Peterson, 2006, pp. 7-20) to PP. These approaches make it is easy to see a critic’s perspective of PP as “shallow” (Miller, 2008). The exponential growth of PP demonstrated that it is possible to take partial notions of the PP science and turn any coaching, educational, or health based activity into an illusively creditable and highly profitable business (Peterson, 2006). These amplified versions of PP perpetuate unsubstantiated, simplified dogma such as “cult[s] of extraversion” (Miller, 2008, p. 600), “power of positive thinking” (Lazuras, 2003, p. 105), or the fine line between the philosophy and psychology of “the good life” (Kristjánsson, 2013, p. 5; Perterson, 2008, p. 6).

In combination with the plethora of unsubstantiated dogma there is rival evidentiary research that takes the gaps in the PP science yet to be explored and propagates discourse that revolves around the pragmatics of language use (Miller, 2008; Peterson, 2006; Pinker, 1994). A superficial view of the science of PP could misinterpret and misconstrue the language of “positive”, “happiness”, “optimism”, “hope”, “strength”, “virtue”, as well as the notions of “flourishing”, “flow”, “self-efficacy”, and “life worth living” (Peterson, 2006; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Certainly, preconceived language definitions based in infinite information sources or broad-ranging disciplines (Pinker, 1994) could, and have, distorted the science of “Authentic Happiness” (See Seligman, 2002; The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, 2017) to the science of anything from, as Miller (2008) pointed out, a “personal fulfillment in a liberal, utilitarian, materialistic age” (p. 592), to a “positive personality” (p. 593) or “… a substitute recipe for success” (p. 606). In other words, it is possible to impinge limited concepts and narrow understandings of the PP research and literature through the lack of congruent, or even miscomprehended, definitions of language usage (Pinker, 1994). Ironically, this demonstrates the idea that PP is simply a “caricature of an extravert… [that negates] true self-knowledge or wisdom” (Miller, 2008, p. 606) and is based in a limited self-knowledge or wisdom of the intentions of the Pillars of PP (See Peterson, 2006, pp. 20-21).

The Role of Positive Psychology in Counselling

Despite such criticism, PP has proven substantial over the test of time and through the comprehensive application of techniques; this only begs the question “why”? Perhaps the answers themselves lay in the clarity of language. When looking at depth into the Pillars of PP with open understanding, one comes to see that the use of “positive” is used in relation to what goes right in human nature and the processes leading to well-being, rather than pathology and prescription (see Linley & Joseph, 2004, pp.4-6 for common language definitions; Gable & Haidt, 2005; Grenville-Cleave, 2012; O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011; Peterson, 2006; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). The three pillars of PP (see Peterson, 2006, pp. 20-21) develops a model of mental health around the past, present, and future which both honours the subjective experience and respects the objective data, as it can be facilitated through both a macro and micro level (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Siegel, 2009). Indeed, PP looks beyond the need to diagnose and victimise (Peterson, 2006) and, within a micro or individual context, toward a vital role in counselling.

Ultimately, the objective of PP in counselling is not to abandon concerns, trauma, weakness, barriers to wellbeing, or the initial imperative needed to build rapport through active listening and subjective understanding (Frank & Frank, 1991, as cited in Hubble & Miller, 2004; ; Grenville-Cleave, 2012; Ivy, Ivy, & Zalaquett, 2010; Peterson, 2006). Rather, some of the roles of PP in counselling are to look toward the narrative of the client and elicit: strengths and virtues in times of crisis; recurrent positive (referring to that which is constructive, progressive, and resourceful) personal traits that may have been denied for some time; to encourage the ability to recognise and understand emotions relating to specific situations; and to process these aspects while reconnecting with sensory domains (Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2014; Dunn, 2012; Fave & Massimini, 2004; Lilgendahl & McAdams, 2011; Peterson, 2006; Salovey, Caruso, & Mayer, 2004 ;Seligman, 2011; Siegel, 2009; Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2014; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004). Furthermore, and against Miller’s (2008) insinuations, beyond simple misconstrued notions of optimism and happiness, persistence and success, PP in counselling builds subjective well-being through a capacity to elicit fulfillment, albeit satisfaction, of life’s conditions no matter what it entails (O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

A Framework for Positive Psychology in Counselling

Alongside the roles of PP, in order for PP in counselling to build subjective well-being, a framework of PP techniques must be understood. Research and readily available literature on an abundance of techniques too broad to specify (for example Carr, 2013; Dunn, 2012; Grenville-Cleave, 2012; Kashdan & Ciarrochi, 2013; ; Lilgendahl & McAdams, 2011; Linley & Joseph, 2004; O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011; Peterson, 2006; ; Schueller & Parks, 2012; Seligman, 2002; Seligman, 2011), indicate an eclectic framework of PP techniques in counselling is ideally flexible to incorporate the subjective needs of the client (O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011, Seligman, 2009). In light of subjectivity however, the application of PP techniques in a counselling paradigm primarily incorporate (1) mindfulness and presence to facilitate introspection, emotional intelligence, thus more positive experiences; (2) sense-making narrative to facilitate strengths, purpose and meaning; (3) positive interpersonal relationships to facilitate connectedness. These three elements cultivate self-awareness, identity, esteem and efficacy, resilience, persistence, and most fundamentally, integration, which in turn underscores flourishing.

One of the primary skills required in any modality of therapy is that of mindfulness. A comprehensive look into mindfulness establishes its validity throughout the centuries of both traditional and more recent third wave scientifically based practice (Kashdan, Ciarrochi & Harris, 2013; Siegel, 2010). In practice terms, mindfulness is the ability to be aware and intentional, to be non-judgmentally open and flexible to possibilities, and to feel in presence without grasping (Brown & Ryan, 2004; Kashdan, Ciarrochi & Harris, 2013; Siegel, 2010). Though there are many PP based techniques available, the cultivation of mindfulness involves a steady progression of learning to be receptive to thoughts, to attune to the sensations of the breath and body, and to become aware of the “when” or time of feelings (Siegel, 2010, p. 6). Mindfulness allows clients (and therapists) to cultivate self-regulation while noticing, allowing, and accepting any thoughts without preconceived bias (Brown & Ryan, 2004; Grenville-Cleave, 2012; Kashdan, Ciarrochi & Harris, 2013; Siegel, 2010). With the ability to cultivate presence in the moment-to-moment workings of the mind, clients are able to learn from the therapist how to autonomously and accurately identify, allow, and accept emotions with sound reasoning and the ability to use them for further introspection and insight (Carr, 2013; Dunn, 2012; Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008; Siegel, 2010). Correspondingly, mindfulness also allows for understanding and cultivating states of flow (see Csikszentmihalyi, 2014, pp. 229 – 236), savouring moments and experiences (see Garland & Fredrickson, 2013, pp. 50-59), and nurturing a sense of self in compassion in order to allow for the broadening and building of more positive emotions and experience, and thus resilience (Garland & Fredrickson, 2013).

Mindfulness and sustained resilience begets the integration of new interpretation through sense making (David & Nolen-Hoeksma, 2009; Siegel, 2010). Therefore, secondary to cultivating mindfulness is the ability of the counsellor to interpret and make sense of the narratives clients present (Ivy, Ivy, & Zalaquett, 2010; Seligman, 2009; Siegel, 2010; Steger, 2009). Sense making is the notion of finding consistency, patterns, purpose, meaning, and thus significance of thoughts, actions, behaviours, beliefs and values (Peterson, 2006; Steger, 2009). Specific PP techniques such as the VIA-IS (Virtues in Action Inventory of Strengths; Peterson, 2006), alongside guiding clients to purposeful recognition of their values, abilities, attributes, positive genetic predispositions, and consistent personality traits and temperament (Carr, 2013; Gabel & Haidt, 2005; O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011; Peterson, 2006; Seligman, n.d; Siegel, 2010), open the pathways to a narration of their life. This then turns rigidity and chaos into a discovery of self, agency, and begins the processes of purposeful goal setting and attainment: sense making through narrative cultivates the “why” and begins to open more pathways to connectedness with self and self to other (Grenville-Cleave, 2012; O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011; Schwartz & Sharpe, 2006; Seligman, n.d; Seigel, 2010; Steger, 2009).

Finally, in a PP framework, connectedness of self to other cannot be negated as the relational self is central to well-being (Grenville-Cleave, 2012; O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Siegel, 2010). The relational self and the cultivation of positive relationships within PP in counselling often begins with the recognition of a clients family and social histories. Histories of attachment, attunement, communication, and culture, alongside the recognition within these areas of security, support, equality, value, respect, and differentiation are vital in ascertaining helpful versus harmful connectedness (Carr, 2013; Grenville-Cleave, 2012; O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011; Peterson, 2006; Siegel, 2010). PP techniques in counselling to assist the client in the identification of both positive and restrictive aspects of relationships involve open awareness through such practices as the Adult Attachment Interview, The Gottman relationship check up, relationship positivity ratio recognition and adjustment, as well as relationship response style and the ability to recognise (in self and other) and respond to positive emotions (Carr, 2013; Grenville-Cleave, 2012; O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011; Peterson, 2006; Siegel, 2010; The Gottman Insitute, 2017). Opening awareness to family and social histories further establishes a deeper insight into self concept and the foundation upon which to build stronger more respectful, reciprocal relationships, as well as a deeper sense of knowing others authentically (Grenville-Cleave, 2012; O’Hanlon & Bertolino, 2011). This in turn, paves fundamental avenues toward interpersonal and intrapersonal resilience and thus integration (Garland & Fredrickson, 2013; Siegel, 2010).

As aforementioned, through broadening and building upon repeated use of PP techniques that cultivate (1) mindfulness, (2) sense-making, and (3) relationships, a deeper sense of self-awareness, identity, esteem and efficacy, persistence, resilience and most fundamentally, integration is promoted. That is, by allowing a client to come to a subjective understanding of valued experiences through individual traits and shared virtues, a life flourishing can be attained (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).

Final Discussion

This analysis has shown that indeed PP can perpetuate the notion of a stereotypical “ideal” individual through the misinterpretation and misconstrued use of language. However, so too, this analysis has demonstrated the ironic nature of critic statements that dismiss the true depth of the PP research and literature. Furthermore, it has been shown that the role of PP in counselling does not diminish human suffering, rather it respects the aspects that bring about trials, tribulations and the emotions that radiate from fear, as equally as it respects an innate capacity to facilitate optimal well-being and the emotions that radiate from love. It was shown that this is possible through a framework that incorporates PP techniques in areas of mindfulness, sense making, and relationships to facilitate resilience and ultimately integration. Finally, it cannot be negated that although it is indeed possible to perpetuate a negative stance on such a movement as Positive Psychology, it is imperative to remember that in looking through the history of humanity, that the pursuit of happiness, the questioning of pain and suffering, the seeking of that which makes one strong, and the human desire to feel, honestly authentically feel, dates back to, well – Genesis (In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth… God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. Gen1:1;31).

---

References

Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2004). Fostering Healthy Self-Regulation from Within and Without: A Self-Determination Theory Perspective. In A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 105-126). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Carr, A. (2013). Positive Psychology : The Science of Happiness and Human Strengths. New York, NY: Routledge.

Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Hunter, J. (2014). Happiness in Everyday Life: The Uses of Experience Sampling. In M. Csikszentmihalyi (Ed.), Flow and the Foundations of Positive Psychology: The Collected Works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (pp. 89-100). New York, NY: Springer.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2014). Flow. In M. Csikszentmihalyi (Ed.), Flow and the Foundations of Positive Psychology: The Collected Works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (pp. 227-236). New York, NY: Springer.

Davis, C. G., & Nolen-Hoeksma, S. (2009). Making Sense of Loss, Perceiving Benefits, and Posttraumatic Growth. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 641-650). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Dunn, B. D. (2012). Helping Depressed Clients Reconnect to Positive Emotion Experience: Current Insights and Future Directions. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19(4), 326-340. doi:10.1002/cpp.1799

Fave, A. D., & Massimini, F. (2004). Bringing Subjectivity into Focus: Optimal Experiences, Life Themes, and Person-Centered Rehabilitation. In A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 581-597). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? Review of General Psychology, 9(2), 103-110. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103

Garland, E. L., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Mindfulness Broadens Awareness and Builds Meaning at the Attention-­Emotion Interface. In T. B. Kashdan & J. V. Ciarrochi (Eds.), Mindfulness, Acceptance, and Positive Psychology: The Seven Foundations of Well-Being (pp. 30-67). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.

The Gottman Institute. (2017). Relationship Checkup : The Gottman Institute. Retrieved from https://checkup.gottman.com/

Grenville-Cleave, B. (2012). Positive psychology: A practical guide. London, United Kingdom: Icon Books.

Hubble, M. A., & Miller, S. D. (2004). The Client: Psychotherapy’s Missing Link for Promoting a Positive Psychology. In A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive Psychology in Practice(pp. 335-353). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Ivey, A. E., Ivey, M. B., & Zalaquett, C. P. (2016). Essentials of intentional interviewing: Counseling in a multicultural world (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Kashdan, T. B., & Ciarrochi, J. V. (Eds.). (2013). Mindfulness, Acceptance, and Positive Psychology: The Seven Foundations of Well-Being. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.

Kashdan, T. B., Ciarrochi, J. V., & Harris, R. (2013). The foundations of flourishing. In T. B. Kashdan & J. V. Ciarrochi (Eds.), Mindfulness, Acceptance, and Positive Psychology: The Seven Foundations of Well-Being (pp. 1-29). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.

Kristjánsson, K. (2013). Virtues and vices in positive psychology: A philosophical critique. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Lazarus, R. S. (2003). TARGET ARTICLE: Does the Positive Psychology Movement Have Legs? Psychological Inquiry, 14(2), 93-109. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1402_02

Lilgendahl, J. P., & McAdams, D. P. (2011). Constructing Stories of Self-Growth: How Individual Differences in Patterns of Autobiographical Reasoning Relate to Well-Being in Midlife. Journal of Personality, 79(2), 391-428. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00688.x

Linley, A., & Joseph, S. (Eds.). (2010). Positive psychology in practice. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Linley, A., & Joseph, S. (2004). Applied Positive Psychology: A New Perspective for Professional Practice. In A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice(pp. 3-12). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008). Human Abilities: Emotional Intelligence. Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 507-536. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093646

Miller, A. (2008). A Critique of Positive Psychology-or ‘The New Science of Happiness’. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42(3-4), 591-608. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9752.2008.00646.x

O’Hanlon, B., & Bertolino, B. (2012). The therapist’s notebook on positive psychology: Activities, exercises, and handouts. New York, NY: Routledge.

Peterson, C. (2006). A primer in positive psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: The new science of language and mind. New York, NY: Penguin Books.

Salvoey, P., Curuso, D., & Mayer, J. D. (2004). Emotional intelligence in practice. In A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 447-463). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

Schueller, S. M., & Parks, A. C. (2012). Disseminating Self-Help: Positive Psychology Exercises in an Online Trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 14(3), e63. doi:10.2196/jmir.1850

Schwartz, B., & Sharpe, K. E. (2006). Practical Wisdom: Aristotle meets Positive Psychology. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7(3), 377-395. doi:10.1007/s10902-005-3651-y

Seligman, M. E. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York, NY: The Free Press.

Seligman, M. E. (2011). Learned optimism. Sydney, Australia: Random House.

Seligman, M. E. (n.d.). Positive Psychology, Positive Prevention, and Positive Therapy. Retrieved from http://www.positiveculture.org/uploads/7/4/0/7/7407777/seligrman_intro.pdf

Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive Psychology: An Introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5

Siegel, D. J. (2009). Emotion as integration: A possible answer to the question, what is emotion? In M. F. Solomon, D. J. Siegel, & D. Fosha (Eds.), The healing power of emotion: Affective neuroscience, development, and clinical practice (pp. 145-171). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.

Siegel, D. J. (2010). The mindful therapist: A clinician’s guide to mindsight and neural integration. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co.

Steger, M. F. (2013). Meaning in Life. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 679-688). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). A Clinical Approach to Posttraumatic Growth. In A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 405-419). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons.

The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania. (2017). Authentic Happiness. Retrieved from https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/